Non-Western: Mexico

     The Mexican Revolution was a ten-year-long political crisis and civil war that left over a million people dead. In the wake of the Mexican Revolution, the Mexican government funded a nationwide art project in an attempt to reunify the country as well as promote national pride by making public art accessible through murals. This has come to be known as the Mexican Muralist movement. The Mexican government commissioned artists to create public murals that were inspired by ancient Mayan and Aztec influence with their bold colors and simplified forms. The subject matter ranged from political, to grassroots concerning independence, cultural identity, progress, oppression, and social commentary. 

    One of the foremost artists of the Mexican Muralist Movement is Diego Rivera. Rivera began working in Mexico in the early 1920s and was primarily based in Mexico City, although he painted murals all over the world. Themes of human suffering and depictions of revolutionary heroes were at the forefront of Rivera's works which often sparked controversy both at home and abroad. 

    

Creation by Diego Rivera (1922-23.) Pigment suspended in molten wax.

    Creation is Rivera's first work that was commissioned by the Mexican Government and resides in Mexico City. It is a complex depiction of the creation of science and the arts by combining Juedeo-Christion, Mexican, and Hellenic concepts. We can see the Hellenic influences in the elongation of the human forms which resembles naturalism, as well as the depiction of these people in what appears to be a natural setting. Additionally, we can see the influence of Judeo-Christian motifs when acknowledging the angels at the top of the piece and the halos surrounding the heads of the seven figures that reside above the rest. The placement of these figures above the rest in conjunction with their halos implies that they are holier or of greater virtue than those below them. These figures represent faith. The mural also portrays the concept of charity when analyzing the two unclothed figures on either end of the lower portion of the mural. Something noteworthy about this piece is that the features of the figures being portrayed (skin tone, facial features, hair color) are distinctly Mexican. This was intentional on Riveras part considering that this was a mural created for the Mexican people. Not to mention, the figures were modeled after a native Mexican woman, Guadelupe Marin, who would later become Rivera's second wife. 

    Another muralist of this time is David Alfero Siqueiros who painted thousands of square feet in murals during his day depicting subject matter similar to that of Diego Rivera, except Sigueiros' work heavily reflected his own Marxist ideology. His beliefs led to much controversy in Mexico because of the political tension as well as the stigma around communism at the time. This led him to be arrested as well as exiled several times. Rivera was also a very passionate left-winged artist, so it's no surprise that Rivera and Siqueiros considered themselves partners and worked closely together for their cause. 

The Elements by David Alfero Siqueiros (1922.) Multimedia on cement.

    The Elements is located on the ceiling of a predatory school and depicts a large winged woman surrounded by representations of the four elements: water, earth, fire, and air. The imagery that Siqueiros chose to represent the elements is abstract ones that one wouldn't typically think of. Shells represent water when one might think of waves or droplets. Abstract flames represent fire. Wind, or air, is represented by the equally abstract horizontal forms underneath the red flames. Lastly, the element of earth is depicted as "two giant bones of a tropical fruit" mirrored at the base of the winged woman (X.) These non-traditional depictions of the elements can be seen as symbolic of a new, non-traditional idealism in the wake of a country that was just beginning to redefine itself politically, socially, culturally, and artistically. 

    A notably important icon and influential artist that lived during the time of the Mexican Muralist Movement is none other than Frida Khalo. Khalo has become a legend of post-revolution Mexico and one of the most celebrated and influential artists of the 19th century. Khalo's art isn't all that makes her so intriguing to the world. Her life story includes her notoriously tumultuous marriage to Diego Rivera, a man who was 21 years older than herself, her unique style, and her wit have inspired award-winning movies and books. However, her art itself is moving, puzzling, deeply personal, and visually beautiful. Kahlo's works depict themes of self-reflection, internal pain, and the projection that pain casts on the outside world.

The Two Fridas By Frida Kahlo (1939.) Oil on canvas.

        Something that Frida Kahlo is most known for is her self-portraits. In The Two Fridas, there are two versions of herself portrayed sitting beside each other holding hands. She painted it soon after her divorce from Diego Ravera and seems to represent two different versions of herself. One, to the left, is dressed in a traditional Tehuana dress and has only half of a heart in her chest. In her hand is a pair of forceps that appear to be pinching an artery in an attempt to stop it from bleeding. This could be a metaphor for emotional damage control or attempts to heal oneself's own heartbreak. The Frida on the right is dressed in more modern clothing for the time, and her heart is whole. In her hand is a photograph where a similar artery that is coiled up her arm and connected to her complete heart ends. The sky above both of her is cloudy and grey, perhaps reflecting her inner uncertainty and turmoil.

    Personally, Frida Kahlo is my favorite artist from this era. She also has a few political works and similar ideology to Rivera and Siqueiros, however, I think that she really distinguishes herself with her deeply intimate and visually striking artwork.

Works Cited

    “Mexican Muralism Movement Overview.” The Art Story, https://www.theartstory.org/movement/mexican-muralism/.

    Siqueiros, David Alfaro. “The Elements, 1922 - David Alfaro Siqueiros.” Www.wikiart.org, 1 Jan. 1970, https://www.wikiart.org/en/david-alfaro-siqueiros/the-elements-1922.

    “The Two Fridas.” The Two Fridas, 1939 by Frida Kahlo, https://www.fridakahlo.org/the-two-fridas.jsp.

Post-Modernism

The Post-Modern era takes place from 1980 to the present day. The common denominator of all forms of post-modern art is the idea that nothing holds just one intrinsic truth that everyone can see and understand because each human experience is inherently different.

Deconstruction is not only the principal guideline for postmodernism but a medium as well. With deconstruction as a guiding principle, everyone is free to come to their own conclusions. Frank Gehry is a pioneering deconstruction artist who works with raw materials and architecture. 

Fish Lamps by Frank Gehry (1983.) Plastic laminate.

Deconstruction most often takes the form of sculpture, Fish Lamps is no different, but with the added element of electricity. It stands out to me because it is an art that serves a practical function, but is still classified as art. Or maybe it isn’t, it depends on who you ask. The fact that it greys the line between an appliance, and a sculpture embodies the very principle of deconstruction. It isn’t following a set of rules that determines what is art and what isn’t, it isn’t claiming to be anything specific and leaves that interpretation up to the individual beholder. Gehry has done several installations of plastic laminate glued onto wires in the shape of fish and then illuminated from the inside out. Personally, I love this piece and I would definitely have it in my home. I think that the fact that it functions as a light makes it all the more captivating and interesting to look at. They can be hung from the ceiling or mounted flush to a wall; thus making the experience completely different depending on how they're displayed. 

Frank Gehry is also an award-winning architect and has designed dozens of visually striking buildings. The use of architecture as an art form is nothing new, but its execution has evolved with technology throughout the centuries, making architectural art more commonplace than it has ever been previously in history.

Dancing House by Frank Gehry (1992-96.)

Dancing House is located in the Czech Republic and is used as an office building. The site on which it was built is actually a historic site, the location of a home that was destroyed in the U.S. bombing of Prague in 1945. The non-traditional design was controversial at the time of its completion because its “new baroque” style stands out amongst the Gothic buildings that surround it. The building appears to be distorted, almost like it’s been pinched on its left side. At the very top of the building is a large pile of twisted medals that has been nicknamed “The Medusa.” The building appears to be almost animated or something out of Harry Potter because of the cartoony appearance of the windows but is contrasted by the sleek, modern look of the glass that sheaths the left-most collum of the building. I can’t tell if I love this building or hate it. I think that it's a little dizzying to look at because of all the different artistic directions that it’s going in, but that’s also what makes it interesting. I think that I’d have to agree with the controversy that surrounded it; it does stand out from the Gothic and neo-classical style buildings that surround it and I think that the placement itself just itches my brain in the wrong way. However, I do love its name: Dancing House. It has a nice ring to it. 

    Another art form that postmodernism took is installation art. Installation art is a display that is generally designed for a specific space and is often there for a limited period of time and is meant for public consumption. 

Fallen Blossom: Explosion Project by Cai Guo-Qiang (2009.) Gunpowder fuse, metal net for gunpowder fuse, scaffolding.

    Cai Guo-Qiang is an installation artist who uses gunpowder and controlled explosions to paint on canvas. His methods are unconventional, to say the least, and his art installations are fun and exciting to behold. His medium bleeds into performance art because of its theatrical nature, as well as deconstruction because of his unconventional use of materials. His work can be classified as fitting closely into either of these subcategories, depending on the piece.

The explosion forms the pattern of a blossom, thus the name. This piece could also be considered deconstruction art because it utilized several elements in ways that were not intended. In doing so, Guo-Qian has redefined their purpose and defined conventionality which is the defining act of post-modern art. 

Another installation artist is Tadashi Kawamata. His art is site-specific in the sense that his installations are meant to stand apart from the space that its in and encourage onlookers to re-think their surroundings. If you saw one of Kawamata’s works while walking down the street, it’d probably stop you in your tracks.

Grandmaison by Tadashi Kawamata (2008.)

    

    Grandmaison is a massive collection of wooden pallets piled up into a wave that's pouring off of the top of the building and onto the street. Kawamatas works often grow over time, and leave room for growth still after their completion. Visually, there is no shortage of material in a finite amount of space. This is his commentary on environmentalism and human’s relationship with expansion and the environment. As chaotic as it looks, it is still methodical and delicately balanced. It forces the onlooker to focus on the overwhelming presence of otherwise overlooked objects. 

The post-modern era has ushered in a boom in street art, public sculptures, public murals, and graffiti. Street art is considered any form of public art, usually in urban/metropolitan areas. It takes the form of many different mediums and varies in permanence.  One street artist, Julian Beever, uses chalk to create optical illusions of great depth on city streets. Because chalk fades so quickly, the only record of his work is via photographs. The technological sophistication of the modern day makes it possible to keep a record of these works as well as generate profit for an otherwise unprofitable medium of art such as chalk. 

That Hemmed In Feeling by Julian Beever.

What’s so striking about Beever’s work is the intricate amount of detail. I like that they have the potential to be interactive, as well as just visually interesting. Also, when viewed from afar or from any angle other than dead on, the picture is indistinguishable. He uses the element of perspective very intentionally. Additionally, the three-dimensional aspect of his pieces is only visible when viewed from a photo; whether it be an iPhone, professional camera, or polaroid picture, the three-dimensional element of these pieces is not visible to the naked eye. 

Unlike street art, graffiti art is less often welcomed and in some cases, is punishable by legal action. I find graffiti art fascinating because graffiti has always existed! There have been ancient graffiti discovered by archeologists in many ancient ruins and on many ancient artifacts. They’ve even discovered graffiti in the ruins of Pompeii. 

Untitled by Banksy. November 2022.

    Because of the taboo nature of graffiti, most graffiti artists are anonymous, but there are some distinguished few. One of them is a person that goes by ‘Banksy.’ They’re a kind of celebrity in the art world, although their identity is unknown to the public. He’s famous for stenciling graffiti in public spaces, most often walls, and usually containing some allusion toward moral or political commentary. I think that in creating art in solitude with the citizens of Ukraine, Banksy embodies the nonconforming nature of graffiti (and in turn, post-modernism) very well.

Works Cited

“Cai Guo-Qiang 蔡国强: Fallen Blossoms: Explosion Project (2009).” Artsy, https://www.artsy.net/artwork/cai-guo-qiang-cai-guo-qiang-fallen-blossoms-explosion-project.

“The Dancing House.” Architectural, https://architectuul.com/architecture/the-dancing-house#:~:text=The%20%22Dancing%20House%22%20is%20set,when%20the%20area%20was%20cleared.

Early Modern Art and WWI's Influence

  Early Modern Art and WWI's Influence

 Avant-Garde's art style was born from impressionism and post-impressionism predating World War I. Its primary distinction is that it does not seek to be realistic or to appeal to the viewer’s perspective, but rather focuses on how the artist experiences the world. It was the first real wave of self-expression becoming the forefront of artistic style and formatting. Fauvism, a sub-set of Avant Garde, focuses on expressive colors, awkward perspectives, and simplicity of shapes and depth. It is a stark contradiction and rejection of the values of romanticism during the previous era. All four Avant Garde styles (Fauvism, Cubism, Futurism, and Expressionist) hold many similarities but are distinguishable by minute differences in approach.

The River of Seine at Chatou by Maurice de Vlaminck (1906.) Oil on canvas.

The River of Seine at Chatou by Maurice de Vlaminck is an example of a through-and-through Fauvist artwork. In the 1910s, Chatou was a small village along the Seine River outside of Paris, France. In Fauvism, colors are used to show emotion rather than to depict visual reality. The colors in this painting, although eye-catching, have stuck to similar mostly natural colors of the view he depicted. Vlaminck chose a variety of shades to create some elements of depth and shadow, particularly in the water. The organic lines he used creates a simple, tactile painting while still being able to create a cohesive picture that the viewer can understand. This particular piece bleeds a little bit into Cubism because of the subtle geometric shapes that are used to create figures of boats, trees, and buildings in the distance.

Avant-Garde came before World War I and focused mostly on self-expression and abstraction. It primed the stage for an even further rejection of traditional art after World War I. A movement that was produced in reaction to the nationalism and materialism that was believed to have caused World War I is called “Dada.” Dada art is not intended to be visually pleasing, but rather to pose difficult questions about society. Visually, Dada is grandfathered in a lot of artistic elements that are derived from Fauvism and Avant-Garde art styles such as vibrant colors, abstraction, unwieldy perspectives, and expressionalism. The movement was founded in Zurich, Switzerland, and took place from roughly 1916-1924.

Parade Amoureuse (Amorous Parade) by Francis Picabia (1917.) Oil, gesso, metallic pigment, ink, gold leaf, pencil, and crayon on board.

One of the principal figures of the Dada movement is french artist Francis Picabia, AKA “Papa Dada.” Parade Amorous, which translated to Love Parad is a mixed-medium, Dada piece that presents aspects of cubism as well as Fauvism. It suggests analogies between mechanical and human forms. The upper red portion can be considered female and the lower blue is considered male. The concept is the rejection of the idea of the human soul and instead emphasized that we are driven by our compulsions and instincts, like organic machines. Of course, the growing industrialism in Europe and the United States played a big part in the commentary subject matter of many Dada artworks, specifically Picabia, whose works were often mechanical looking with double meaning. 

Like Dadaism is born from Fauvism, Surrealism is born from Dadaism. It inquired into the world of dreams and the subconscious mind, drawing inspiration from the works of Sigmund Freud. Like Dadaism, Surrealism is not concerned with questions of morality, which is a complete 180 from the moral subject matter that dominated the Romantic Era that came before Early Modernism. 

Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bumblebee Around a Pomegranate a Second Before Awakening by Salvador Dali (1944.) Oil on wood.

    Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bumblebee Around a Pomegranate a Second Before Awakening by Salvador Dali is a surrealist painting created in 1944. In it, a naked woman lies on a floating rock above the ocean. Beside her, a bee approaches a pomegranate that floats above the rock. Above her, two lions jump towards her out of the sky: one being spit out of the other, the other being spat out by a giant fish that is emerging out of a large pomegranate, which is also floating in the sly. The giant elephant walking in the distance is a distorted depiction of Piazza Della Minerva's sculpture Elephant and Obelisk by Gian Lorenzo Bernini which is located outside of the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. The bayonet and tigers hurling toward the woman may represent her abrupt awakening from a pleasant dream. The heart-shaped shadow that the small pomegranate casts are believed to be a symbol of Venus as well as the Christian symbol of fertility and resurrection. In this case, perhaps resurrection means simply waking from sleep.

Works Cited

Colourfulexposure. “Visual Analysis.” Contextual Studies, 8 May 2014, https://bp161994.wordpress.com/2014/05/08/visual-analysis-3/.

“Dada Movement Overview and Key Ideas.” The Art Story, https://www.theartstory.org/movement/dada/.

Scott, Dan, et al. “Fauvism Art Movement.” Draw Paint Academy, 8 Sept. 2022, https://drawpaintacademy.com/fauvism/. 

Romanticism vs Realism During the Romantic Era

 Romanticism 

The Romantic art style that was popular during the Romantic Era refers to the glorification of subject matter in art in order to evoke an emotional response from the viewer, rather than it being “romantic’ in the traditional sense of the word. Romanticism was most prevalent at the turn of the 17th century from roughly 1800 through the 1840s. However, some romantic artists continue through the 1880s. Romanticism promoted democracy over conquering, nature over industrialization, and spiritualism over science. Often, viewers were well is of the subject matter behind these paintings because artists often based them off of current events of the time.

The Raft of the Medusa (1819) by Theodore Gericault. Oil on canvas.

       The Raft of the Medusa by Theodore Gericault is an example of a romantic piece inspired by current events. It is based on the fallout of the wrecked French Royal Navy frigate, The Medusa, in 1816. The collective drama of this large piece is supplemented by the faces of individual suffering on the faces of every sailor. The scene is a shocking one, including several dead bodies and others' frantic waving of their banners in what looks like an attempt to obtain help. The dead men are implied to have died of starvation while floating on the wreckage for thirteen days. There was a lack of lifeboats on the frigate, which resulted in some of the 150 survivors looking to clumps of floating rubber as make-shift rafts. The captain of the ship, was said to be incompetent and having gained his position through connections he had with the Burbon Restoration Government, was blamed for the tragedy. The survivors of the wreck were predominately high-ranking senior officers, attributed to the scandal of it all.

    Because this is a romantic style painting, it is meant to invoke emotions in the viewer. At first glance, one can assume that they are meant to feel sadness and sympathy for the victims of the wreck depicted in the painting. But, upon knowing the true event's that it is inspired by, maybe the viewer then feels a twinge less sympathy because the event ultimately could have been avoided. Personally, I think that this piece is a bit of a bummer, so I wouldn't have it in my home. However, I like that it is a subtle form of criticism towards aristocracy at the time. (1.)

    Not all Romantic style art was based on current events. Romantic art is relatively hard to place because it varied so much. However, it did not relate much to Rococo style art and its fancy people, in fancy clothes, doing light-hearted things. As we've seen, Romantic art can be rather dark in its subject matter. 

During the rise of Romantic art, we began to see notice in American artists. One particular group of American painters called themselves The Hudson River School. They predominately painted vast, grand landscapes in New England and upstate New York. The technique they used for creating light on the canvas is called luminism. 

Heart of the Andes (1857) by Frederic Edwin Church. Oil on canvas.

    

    Heart of the Andes by Frederic Edwin Church is a great example of luminism. This piece is not actually of northeast America, it is a landscape portrait of Ecuador during Church's nine-week travel through South America. It's not a specific place, but rather an idealized landscape. Which is part of what classifies it as a romantic painting. In the background, we see snowy mountains, and in the forefront, there is thick vegetation and a waterfall that looks to be glowing in the golden sun. On the left side of the painting, a cross can be spotted on the edge of a ledge. This emulates the intense amount of detail that this piece has. The feelings that it invokes are senses of peace and wonder. It makes me feel small amongst the grandness of nature. I'd say that I would for sure display this piece in my home. I think that it's breathtaking.

Realist

    Taking place in predominately the second half of the 18th century, realism is considered the first movement in modern art. Realism expanded what was considered art by its desire to merge art with everyday life. This was in reaction to a social and political change in the art world called "Avant-Garde." In opposition to romanticism, which often looked to nature, realism honed in on more serious subject matter rooted in realism, particularly love, death, and morality. The most notable painters of realist art were the Pre-Raphaelites, a group of English painters who believed that art before the time of Raphael, has the only time that art was great. John Everett Millais was one of the most notable realistic painters. 

Mariana (1851) by John Everett Millais. Oil on mahogany.

    Mariana  by John Everett Millais was originally displayed along with the following lines from Tennyson's Mariana,

She only said, 'My life is dreary,
He cometh not,' she said;
She said, 'I am aweary, aweary,
I would that I were dead!'

    The poem is inspired by Shakespeare's character, Mariana, in Measure by Measure; in which her fiance, Angelo, leaves her after her dowry is lost in a shipwreck. She longs to be reunited with Angelo and exists in loneliness and is confined to a moated farm, all the while still being in love with him. The autumn leaves around her insinuate the passage of time since she was rejected. In the stained glass, Millais mimicked the scene from the Chapel of Meron College, Oxford's stained glass windows. The message of the scene translates to "In Heaven, there is rest," which refers to Mariana's longing to be dead. The painting itself is extremely detailed, down to the needle stuck vertically into the embroidery in front of her. and a small mouse scampering across the floor. I think that the minute detail in this painting is very impressive, but it doesn't appeal to me enough to keep it in my home. Although, I do love a good backstory.

    

The Lady of Shalott by John William Waterhouse (1888.) Oil on canvas.

    The Lady of Shalott by John William Waterhouse I a famous example of realist art, although created sometime after its heyday. In this painting, a young red-haired woman drifts down a river with a solemn look on her face. It is one of three depictions of this character, this being his most famous. This piece, too, depicts the unrequited love of a young woman and is based on a poem: Alfred by Lord Tennyson. The subject matter of The Lady of Shalott is very similar to Mariana.

    The precise, meticulous detail of this painting is impressive from the ripples in the water to the flame of the candles, to the design on the Tapestry that the young woman sits upon. In Tennyson's poem, The Lady of Shalott has been imprisoned in her quarters and under a curse that prevented her from going outside or even looking out her window. The only view of the world she has is through a mirror which she looks through and weaves a tapestry of what she sees- the same tapestry that she sits on. After breaking the curse by looking through her window, she escapes to a small boat and ventures off. ( .)

    I think that this is a beautiful painting, I would definitely hang it in my home.

Works Cited

Editors of, Briticanna. “Théodore Géricault.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 22 Sept. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Theodore-Gericault.

Portugeis, Dr. Chloe, and Dr. Chloe Portugeis. “John William Waterhouse, the Lady of Shalott.” Smarthistory, SmartHistory.org, 26 Oct. 2022, https://smarthistory.org/waterhouse-the-lady-of-shalott/.

French and American Enlightenment

    The era of Enlightenment is an especially important one because it rippled through the entirety of the western world including the United States, whereas previous artistic eras were predominately central to Europe. At this time, there was a growing divide between the economic classes and an ever-apparent contempt for the ruling class. The stark discrepancies between the upper and lower/middle classes during the time of Enlightenment are plainly conveyed through the contrasting artistic subject matter that each beheld. Likewise, the significance American Revolution influenced art in North America just as it did all the way across the Atlantic in Europe.

The Interrupted Sleep by Francios Boucher (1750.) Oil on canvas.

    The Interrupted Sleep (1750 ) painted by french artist Francios Boucher is an example of the Rococo style utilized by nobility and the ruling class during the time of the Enlightenment. It portrays a shepherd tickling awake a young shepherdess with a feather in a beautiful wooded area. It is dreamy, romantic, and completely unrealistic. The wardrobe of the two people is uncharacteristic of their roles. The elaborate corset and bodice of the girl and the silk scarf of the boy were not possessed by actual shepherds during this time. The components of this painting that make it a Rococo painting are not only its pastel colors, carefree feel, romantic undertones, and mystical naturalistic setting. It is also the ignorant portrayal and romanticization of working-class people and is important in understanding the significance of this time period as an uprising of common people and ultimately the beginning of the downfall of the monarchy. 

    

    Would I have this painting in my home? It certainly is beautiful and the ignorance of the subject matter aside is rather romantic. So although I would like to say no, and I don’t particularly find it striking, I would say yes. Maybe I would hang it in my bathroom.

   

The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Body of His Son (1789.) Oil on canvas.

    The neoclassical style was very much in opposition to the Rococo. Where Neoclassicalism represents morality, regularity, and logic; Rococo represents dreaminess, asymmetry, and playfulness. These artistic styles reflect the polar opposite realities of the two divided classes. Neoclasicaims is meant to criticize the irresponsibility of the aristocracy and the repercussions it had on the common people. (1.)  The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Body of His Son by Jacques-Lois David is a depiction of the ancient Roman story of Lucious Junius Brutus, the believed founder of the Roman Republic. After discovering that his son was involved in a plan to overthrow him and restore the Roman monarchy, he had him put to death. This is a moment showcasing the decision to choose the prosperity of The Republic over his family. The gap of space between Brutus and his wife and daughters, who throw their heads back in despair, represents the instantaneous disconnect that Brutus’ decision has created between him and his family. Many believe this to be a commentary by David on the current events of the French Revolution. The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Body of His Son includes several characteristic aspects of Neoclasicalism, including straight lines, intentional geometry of form, and ancient Roman stories as its primary subject matter. (2.)

    

    The ideology and outrage that fueled the French Revolution were widely set into motion by the inspiration that the beginning of The American Revolution sparked. After it was shown that it was feasible to demand reform and even independence from rulers, intense criticism of the ruling class across Europe became a cornerstone of change. One of the most notable North American artists of the American Revolution was John Trumbell, who depicted battle scenes from the Revolutionary War as well as numerous portraits of the revolution’s leaders. One of the most famous of these portraits is titled George Washington Before the Battle of Trenton. 

George Washington Before the Battle of Trenton (1792-94.) Oil on canvas.

    The significance of this moment before a focal battle is emphasized by the intense scenery around him. A soldier attempts to settle a bucking horse to his left, and the looming clouds overhead allude to the intensity in the air. I, personally, don't think that I would enjoy this in my home. George Washington is just not that close to my heart.

Works Cited

   Buser, Thomas. "Mark Harden's Artchive: "Neo-Classical Art"". Artchive.Com, 2022, https://www.artchive.com/artchive/neo_classical.html.

    Crow, Thomas. "Art: The Lictors Returning To Brutus The Body Of His Sons". Learner.Org, 2022, https://www.learner.org/series/art-through-time-a-global-view/history-and-memory/lictors-returning-to-brutus-the-bodies-of-his-sons/#:~:text=Lictors%20Returning%20to%20Brutus%20the%20Bodies%20of%20his%20Sons%20demonstrates,of%20form%20and%20linear%20contours.

    

Merchant Mania

 The rise of the middle class in the Netherlands during the Baroque era was thanks to the prosperous trade economy that considerably improved the Dutch standard of living. Contemporary Dutch art began to circulate amongst the merchant class depicting celebrations, the simple joys of everyday life, and the abundance of traded goods; most often spices, silks, cotton, and porcelain. For the first time in European history, possession of contemporary art amongst the merchant class became commonplace. There were little to no church commissions due to the country being predominately Protestant, and artwork was bought popularly and sold in commercial art galleries. (1.) 

The Philosopher in Meditation by Rembrandt van Rijn (1632.) Oil on oak.

The Philosopher in Meditation is an example of Dutch art reflecting the lives of everyday people- people who weren’t royalty, nobility, or saints. In it, a monk sits with his head bowed in meditation and hands folded in his lap. A woman, who is assumed to be his wife, stokes the fire and golden sunlight is coming in from a grand window. There is actually a third figure in the painting, a woman at the top of the staircase blocking out towards the viewer. However, it’s almost impossible for the naked eye to see her because of the damage to the varnish due to age.

The painting is dimly lit, but doesn’t feel cold or grim. Contrarily, it feels warm, peaceful, and inviting. It is a depiction of home and familiarity that is accentuated by golden hues and relatable acts. The stark contrast between dark and light, shadows and highlights, reflects the theatrical elements that are characteristic of the Baroque era. Some believe that this depth in contrast and warm colors reflects the depth of knowledge that the monk holds. The small door to the monk’s right can be interpreted as the door to the mind’s hidden belly, and the staircase is the accent to higher knowledge of things that we do not understand. When interpreted this way, this painting is really a perfect metaphor for meditation. (2.)

Works Cited

    "Philosopher In Meditation" By Rembrandt – Joy Of Museums Virtual Tours". Joy Of Museums Virtual Tours, 2022, https://joyofmuseums.com/museums/europe/france-museums/paris-museums/the-louvre/philosopher-in-meditation-by-Rembrandt/. 

    "The Philosopher In Meditation By Rembrandt Van Rijn (1632)". Beauty Of Baroque ~ A Weekly Indulgence Of Art From An Amazing Era, 2022, https://beautyofbaroque.wordpress.com/2014/07/20/the-philosopher-in-meditation-by-rembrandt-van-rijn-1632/. 

     Sandro Botticelli, an Italian Renaissance painter, produced Primavera in the late 1470s / early 1480s. Botticelli was among the first Italian Renaissance artists to center his large-scale pieces around ancient Greek and Roman mythology. He did so mostly at the request of the younger generations of the Medici family, at a point where religion was no longer at the forefront of artistic subject matter. However, this is slightly ironic because Primavera was hung in the bed chambers of a bride to a member of the Medici family. The general theme of the painting is “one of love and marriage and when done in the right order will bring forth sensuality and fertility.” (1) So even though the painting symbolizes a time of transition from religious to mythological subject matter, the act of hanging it in a bride-to-be’s bedroom before matrimony reveals traditionally religious undertones. Also, because of the fact that the woman was set to marry a Medici, which was an obscenely wealthy and powerful family at the time, it’s safe to assume that the marriage was arranged by entities other than herself. The mythology that Primavera depicts is symbolic of this phenomenon. On the right is the goddess of flowers, Flora, who was originally a person named Chloris. Chloris was raped in the forest by the wind god, Zephyr. In order to prove to Chloris that he was remorseful of his actions he married her and granted her eternal life as Flora, goddess of flowers. A weird way to say sorry, but the marriage wasn’t her decision nonetheless. 

The figures Primavera portray an element of mannerism in the way that their torsos, limbs, and necks appear unnaturally long. Three of these figures gathered in a circle are dressed in a sheer, lightweight fabrics. They are barefoot and appear to be partaking in a kind of dance. There is another figure to the far right dressed in similar clothing. I think that the lighter values of these figures in both their features and clothing are representative of their roles within the painting. The three figures especially because they are a depiction of the Three Graces. In Roman mythology, they represent Chastity, Beauty, and Love, “The Roman writer Seneca refers to them as ‘pure and undefiled and holy in the eyes of all” (2).

Personally, I think that this painting would be confusing to behold had I not been told the mythology behind it. In an aesthetic sense, it’s not the most appealing to just look at. Although interesting to pick apart analytically and very beautiful, it’s not necessarily my cup of tea or something I would hang in my home.

Works Cited

1.    Renaissance.org, Italian. "Botticelli’S Primavera – Italianrenaissance.Org". Italianrenaissance.Org, 2022, https://www.italianrenaissance.org/a-closer-look-botticellis-primavera/.

2.    Rymer, Eric. "Primavera By Sandro Botticelli". Historylink101.Com, 2022, https://www.historylink101.com/art/Sandro_Botticelli/pages/09_Primavera_jpg.htm.